[“His Majesty’s government (now Nepal Government) has decided to name ‘Nepal Nepal 9/8/1996 .]
By Daya R. Shakya
Even though the above statement was published more than a decade ago, knowingly or unknowingly the Newah people have been adding an ‘i’ to the word “Newar” to indicate its adjective form. By virtue of being non Indo-Aryan language adding an “i” in Newar is grammatically incorrect (Malla -1999).
In this short essay, I shall attempt to present some linguistic arguments on why the word ‘Newari’ is ungrammatical. The name of language itself is wrongfully called NEWARI. Historically, the name of the Newah language is NEPAL BHASHA or colloquially it is known as the NEWAH BHAAYE. No historical proof is available to indicate the language of Newah people by the term NEWARI. It is the word that is used by non-Newah people by influence of their own languages. Brain H. Hodgson, a British Resident to Nepal (1820 to 1843 and in Darjeeling from 1845 to 1858), appears to be the first among such authors who have used the term: 'Newar' in his essays on Nepal and Tibet, possibly influenced by his associates appointed by the then Rana regime.
For further reading please refer to the author's article ‘In naming the language’ by this author in Newah Vijnaana-2, 1998. According to the features of Tibeto-Burman languages a word by itself is not enough to indicate the name of a language as listed below.
For further reading please refer to the author's article ‘In naming the language’ by this author in Newah Vijnaana-2, 1998. According to the features of Tibeto-Burman languages a word by itself is not enough to indicate the name of a language as listed below.
(1)
Sherpe Lhapsye Sherpa language
Phoe Pe Tibetan Language
Yakthum Paan Limbu language
Tamang Tam Tamang Language
Magar Dhut Magar Language
Magar Pang Kham Magar Language
Kusunda Gepang Kusunda Language
Newah Bhaaye Newar Language
Magar Pang Kham Magar Language
Kusunda Gepang Kusunda Language
Newah Bhaaye Newar Language
Here the words /lhapsye/pe/,/paan/, /tam/, /dhut/, /pang/,/gepang/ mean ‘language’ in their native term. Therefore the language of Newah people can also be written by the phrase ‘Newah Bhaaye’, a colloquial form of ‘Nepal Bhasha’. That is a compound form of ethnic name and the native word for the language. Hence the term NEWARI is uncommon and not acceptable to the native Newah people.
By examining phonological features of Newah Bhaaye, we understand that the structure of many Newah words are mono or bi-syllabic as shown in the table below:
(2)
Mono Syllabic Meaning Bi Syllabic Meaning
maN mother kijaa younger brother
khaN matter duru milk
nhaaye nose mhutu mouth
hyaauN red tuyu white
If the words are other than mono or bi-syllabic they must fit into phonological justification. Many of multi-syllabic words used in Newah language are borrowed from other languages and if the native words are multi-syllabic they must be written or pronounced with phonological changes as shown in following words:
(3)
Borrowed word Meaning Native word Phonological Change Meaning
Tarakari vegetable Tapuli tapli hat
Sarakar Government Dabula dabuu stage
Jaagira service Kapala kapaah forehead
Gundruk fermented veggie Kirtipur kipuu Kirtipur(city)
Gudhiyaa dolls Jhyaala hyaah window
Jahaana family Kalaata kalaah wife
In addition to above native words there is a whole set of words in Nepal Bhasa that shows a phonological difference between underlying and written forms. Some examples of these forms are given below:
(4)
Underlying Old form (1) Written Current form (2) Deleted sound(3) Meaning(4)
Nhaasa nhaae: sa nose
Mesha myeh sa baffalo
Bhaasa Bhaaye sa language
Phasa phaye sa air
Khansa khayen sa Khasa people
Hansa hayen sa duck
Newaara Newaah ra Newar People
Magara Magah ra Magar people
Nepala Nepaah la Nepal
Puchala puchah la Group
Jhyaala jhyaah la window
Makala makah la fire pot
Maakala maakah la monkey
Pasala pasah la store
Degala degah la Temple
Kaenla kayen la Bronze
Jhangala jhangah la bird
Daala daah la fat
Nyakula nyekuu la horn
Nugala nugah la heart
Papula papuu la wing
Sala sah la sound
Maala maah la garland
Puchala puchah la group
Saphuta saphuu ta Book
Kalaata kalaah ta wife
Pwatha pwaah tha stomach
Twaatha twaah tha mouth/bick
Chhyana chhyaN na head
Chalana chalaN na tradition
Chhochuna chhochuN na flour
Gaama gaaN ma village
Manukha manuu kha human
Lakha lah kha water
Naakha( Bhaktapur) naah kha water
Ailaakha ailaah kha liquor
Kokha koh kha crow
The entry in the table above well illustrate that Nepal Bhasha words end in vowel not as Nepali words that end in consonant such as Jhyaal, suruwaal, degal, mandir etc. It is considered that the Newah words undergo phonological process of deleting the final syllable when they are used in a sentence. So any words which need to be pronounced with long vowel at the end of word can be assumed that it has extended form as given in column1 and current written form as in column 2. The column 3 illustrates deleted sounds ‘agam’such as, -sa. -la, -ta, -tha, -ma, -kha.
This is a fact that Newah words undergo phonological changes and maintain grammatical requirements. In addition, a message of ‘ who is doing what to whom’ is marked in any language by using a linguistic device called case mark or kaarak in the form of bibhakti (in Nepali). The case marks are attached with noun words as suffixes or also called as post-positions where as in English all the case marks are called pre-positions fro instance ghar-maa or in a house.
In Newah languge also, all the English pre-positions are known as post-positions because they are suffixed to the noun words. In order to deliver a message from a speaker to a listener, the case marks are very important in a language. Hence, the case marks are unavoidable device of Newah grammar. There is a set of Newah case marks in English, Nepali and Newah as listed below:
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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Prepositions Underlying Meaning Nepali form Newah form Example
By Agent / doer -le -na /-aN john-na
To Receipient -laai -yaata john-yaata
In/on/at Location -maa -sa –e Amerikaae
From Ablative -dekhi/baata -aN Nepal
With Associative -sanga -naapa paasaa-naapa
With Instrumental -le -N kathi-N
Of N Genetive -ko -yaagu/mha john-yaa-gu/mha
The newah case marks given in column (4) above are listed in regular form and they undergo the process of phonological change when they occur with a noun of different forms of final syllable including vowel and consonant endings as shown below:
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‘i’–ending ‘e’- ending ‘a’ ending aa-ending u-ending o-ending consonant ending
Chameli SyeN Chota Gamalaa KuN Wo Telephon
Tapuli Pele Ratna Kamalaa Kulu Ko Kamal
Chhwaali KeheN Chhyana Simaa Pulu Bo Gopaal
Chheli YeN Surdyawa Jaamaa Kathmandu So Nepal
Gwaali KheN Sagana Timilaa Paalu Cho Makal
Tuti - Lagana Kusaa Dugu Chho Computer
Chhaati - Magan Lwosaa Mulu Mo
Nhi - Mangaala Suruwaa Swayambhu No Mandir
kaapi - Dhwopwaala Dewaa Swaapu Paako Nokar
Dashami - - Kipaa Lwaapu Ho Jokar
Si - - Twaa Duru Gwo Chokar
It is obvious from the above table that many of Newah words consist of various structures either with vowel ending or consonant endings. When these words are attached with case marks they assimilate with the form of the final syllable as illustrated in table-7 showing a suffix of agent /-aN/ or instrumental/ -aN/ and ablative /-aN/ case marks equivalent to Nepali case marks /-le/,/dekhi/ and /-baata/. Here ‘N’ represents the preceding vowel is nasalized) for the meaning of these words please refer to appendix at the end.
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‘i’ –ending ‘e’- ending ‘a’ ending aa-ending u-ending o-ending consonant ending
Chameli-N SyeNN Chota-N Gamalaa-N KuN-naN Wo-naN Telephon-aN
Tapuli-N Pele-N Ratna-N Kamalaa-N Kulu-N Ko-NaN Kamal-aN
Chhwaali-N KeheN Chhyana-N Simaa-N Pulu-N Bo-naN Gopaal-aN
Chheli-N YeN-naN Surdya-naN Jaamaa-N Kathmandu-N So-naN Nepal
Gwaali-N KheN-naN Sagana-N Timilaa-N Paalu-N Cho-N Makal-aN
Tuti-N ? Lagana-e Kusaa-N Dugu-N Chho-N Computer-aN
Chhaati-N ? Magan-N Lwosaa-N Mulu-N Mo N Degal -aN
Nhi-N ? Mangaala-N Suruwaa-Nan SwayambhuN No-N Mandir-aN
Kaapi-N ? DhwopwaalaN Dewaa-N ? Paako-N Nokar-aN
Dashami-N ? ? Kipaa-N Lwaapu-N Ho-naN Jokar-aN
Si-N ? ? Twaa-naN Dur-N Gwo-naN Chokar-aN
In ddition, the following table(8) illustrates the structure of noun words with case marks of receipient (yaata) or location (-e) similar to Nepali forms /-laai/ and /-maa/. This suffix is derived from the classical or the old form /-Sa/. Ex.’Raja kula –sa’’ in the palace’. The genitive case mark /-yaa-/or /-ko/ in nepali, requires to note whether the noun is animate (living) or inanimate (non-living) either with/-mha/ or /-gu/ siffiexed to the base morpheme /-yaa-/.
(8)
(1) (2) (3) (4) 5) (6) (7)
‘i’ –ending ‘e’- ending ‘a’ ending aa-ending u-ending o-ending consonant ending
Chameli-yaata Pele-yaata Ratna-yaata Kamalayaata Kulu-yaata Ko-yaata Kamal-yaata
Tapuli-i SyeN-e Surdya-yaata Gamalaa-e KuN-i Wo-lae Jokar-yaata
Chhwaali-i KeheN-yaata Chhyana-e Simaa-e Pulu-i Bo-yaata Gopaal-yaata
Chheli-i YeN-e Chota-e Jaamaa-e Kathmandu-i So-lae Nokar-yaata
Gwaali-i KhneN Sagana-e Timilaa-e Paalu-i Cho-lae Telephon-ae
Tuti-i - Lagana-e Kusaa-e Dugu-yaata Chho-e Computer-ae
Chhaati-i - Magan-yaata Lwosaa-e Mulu-i Mo-e Degal-ae
Nhi-i - Mangaala-e Suruwaa-lae Swayambhu-i No-lae Mandir-ae
Kaapi-i - Dhwopwaala Dewaa-e Swaapu-ti Paako-e Nepal
Dashami-i - - Kipaa-e Lwaapu-i Ho-lae Makal-ae
Si-yaata - - Twaa-thae Duru-i Gwo-lae Chokar-ae
From the table (8) above, it is noticeable that to fulfill the message of ‘who is doing what to whom and where’ it is obligatory to add the suffixes to noun and maintain the rule of Newah language grammar. The suffix ‘yaata’ does not change the form of the noun, whereas adding the locational case mark /-e/ is not consistent in most of the words which contain different vowel quality as shown above (8) Thus, according to the structure of the final syllable of a word the locational case marking suffix /-e/ undergoes changes as stated below.
(9) /-e/ changes to 1. /-i/ in I and u ending words as in column 1 and 5
2. /-ae/ in consonant ending words as in column 7
/-e/ stays same in /-e/, /-a /,/- aa/ and /-o/ ending words as in column 2, 3, 4 and 6
This comes to the point that due to inconsistent occurrence of the locational suffix any Newa noun word with this suffix confuses native speakers with lack of proper analysis and understanding. Now a question arises how the consonants appear when the locational suffix is added as in /swaapu-ti/,’ ‘In relationship’, /so-lae/ ‘in a nest , /no-lae/’ ‘balancing rod’, /suruwaa-lae/ ‘in a trouser’ etc. In order to identify such a hidden consonant the speakers are advised to understand that any noun generally listed in a dictionary is simply a surface form of current use. To identify the actual form of noun word, first of all, it has to be sure in a sentence and add case marks. If the form of noun changes an automatic consonant appear with case marking suffixed. As for example, when the locational case mark /-e/ is added with the word Nepaah or Newaah, dabuu, puchah, they become Nepaa(l)-ae, Newaa-(l)-ae, Dabu-(l)-i, and puch-(l)-ae. The appearance of (l) with these words is due to the phonological justification within morphological boundary and it is called ‘Agam’ in Nepal Bhasha grammar ( Joshi 1990). When these words are written in Devnagari a colon(:) is used however in Roman alphabet an (h) is used in conventional way to indicate a log vowel. In linguistic terms, it is called ‘conmmpensatory lengthening of vowel’. For this reason an ‘h’ is required with the word ‘Newaa’ to represent exact pronounciation discriminating against the pronounciation of the sounds in /mewaa/’ papaya’ and /sevaa/’ service’. This is important feature of Newah language and it is very rare in other languges spoken in Nepal. Due to this hidden feature, many Newah speakers are not aware of correct form of Newah words including adjectives. Therefore, they simply and randomly use “NEWARI” with influence of rules of the dominating Nepali language.
Now going back to adding ‘i’ in Newar. I have outlined in the very beginning of this article that adding ‘i’ in Newar is grammatically incorrect. From the table (8) the word ‘Newar’ can be categorized under the consonant ending word and it is a proper noun for a particular group of people. It is used as an agent who does something or to some body. According to the rule of Newah grammar the adjective form of ‘Newar’ can not be ‘Newari’. It is simply indicates by the word Newar by itself such as Newah chalan, Newah Bhoe, Newah sanskriti, Newah Bhaaye, Newah sanstha etc. not as Newari chalan, Newari Bhoe, Newari sanskriti, Newari Bhaaye, Newari sanstha. These are all unacceptable phrases in Newah language.
If we add locative suffix to consonants ending word simply we can add ‘ae’ as shown in the rules discussed in (9). Therefore, the Nepali phrase of NEWAR MAA is simply written “Newar-ae”. But the word Newar is not native or underlying old form. Therefore the actual word used in Newah language is “Newaal-ae”. This word has very close link with the country Nepal Nepal Nepal
Appendix: 1
‘i’–ending Meaning ‘e’- ending Meaning ‘a’ ending Meaning aa-ending Meaning
Chameli name SyeN heart Chota third floor Gamalaa Vase
Tapuli hat Pele Name Ratna gemes Kamalaa name
Chhwaali wheat straw KeheN younger Sister Chhyana head Simaa Tree
Chheli ground floor YeN Kathmandu Surdyawa Sun Jaamaa dress
Gwaali heel KheN egg Sagana ritual Timilaa moon
Tuti leg Lagana auspicious time - Kusaa umbrella
Chhaati chest Magan name - Lwosaa side dish
Nhi mucus Mangaala sewerage - Suruwaa trouser
kaapi copy Dhwopwaala drain hole - kipaa picture
Si louse - - Twaa mouth
u-ending Meaning o-ending Meaning consonant ending Meaning
KuN smoke Wo beans cake Telephon phone
Kulu drummer Ko crow Kamal name
Pulu bamboo mat Bo arrow Gopaal name
Paalu ginger Cho urine Makal portable fire pot
Dugu goat Chho wheat Computer equipment
Mulu needle Mo husk Degal temple
Swayambhu place name No balancing rod Mandir temple
Swaapu relationship Paako place name Nokar Servant
Lwaapu dispute Ho hole Jokar clown
Duru milk Gwo joint Chokar left over husk
Appendix -2
Usage of Locative case /-e/ with place and country name.
New Jersey-i
Tamilnadu-i
Mexico-e
Florida-e
Japan-ae
Bhutan-ae
Bharat-ae
Portland-ae
* The author lives in be Portland , Oregon USA and can be reached at drasha@aol.com